What Is a Converse Error Fallacy

One logical fallacy that is very common is called a converse error. This error can be hard to spot if we read a logical argument at a superficial level. Examine the following logical argument: If I eat fast food for dinner, then I have a stomach ache in the evening. I had a stomach ache this evening. Therefore I ate fast food for dinner. Although this argument may sound convincing, it is logically flawed and constitutes an example of a converse error. Definition of a Converse Error To see why the above example is a converse error we will need to analyze the form of the argument. There are three parts to the argument: If I eat fast food for dinner, then I have a stomachache in the evening.I had a stomachache this evening.Therefore I ate fast food for dinner. We are looking at this argument form in generality, so it will be better to let P and Q represent any logical statement. Thus the argument looks like: If P, then Q.QTherefore P. Suppose we know that â€Å"If P then Q† is a true conditional statement. We also know that Q is true. This is not enough to say that P is true. The reason for this is that there is nothing logically about â€Å"If P then Q† and â€Å"Q† that means P must follow. Example It may be easier to see why an error occurs in this type of argument by filling in specific statements for P and Q. Suppose I say â€Å"If Joe robbed a bank then he has a million dollars. Joe has a million dollars.† Did Joe rob a bank? Well, he could have robbed a bank, but â€Å"could have† does not constitute a logical argument here. We will assume that both of the sentences in quotations are true. However, just because Joe has a million dollars does not mean that it was acquired through illicit means. Joe could have won the lottery, worked hard all his life or found his million dollars in a suitcase left on his doorstep. Joe’s robbing a bank does not necessarily follow from his possession of a million dollars. Explanation of the Name There is a good reason why converse errors are named such. The fallacious argument form is starting with the conditional statement â€Å"If P then Q† and then asserting the statement â€Å"If Q then P.† Particular forms of conditional statements that are derived from other ones have names and the statement â€Å"If Q then P† is known as the converse. A conditional statement is always logically equivalent to its contrapositive. There is no logical equivalence between the conditional and the converse. It is erroneous to equate these statements. Be on guard against this incorrect form of logical reasoning. It shows up in all sorts of different places. Application to Statistics When writing mathematical proofs, such as in mathematical statistics, we must be careful.  We must be careful and precise with language. We must know what is known, either through axioms or other theorems, and what it is that we are trying to prove. Above all, we must be careful with our chain of logic. Each step in the proof should flow logically from those that precede it. This means that if we do not use correct logic, we will end up with flaws in our proof. It is important to recognize valid logical arguments as well as invalid ones. If we recognize the invalid arguments then we can take steps to make sure that we do not use them in our proofs.

Human Properties And Qualities Of A Substance - 830 Words

Descartes explains â€Å"substance† as being something that exists by itself, as it does not require anything for its existence. With substance he also talks about â€Å"modes† being another element that exists for various things. Modes are what he considers the physical properties and qualities of a substance. An example of what modes are can be imagined by thinking of the color, the texture, or the size of a red ball, as these features are what Descartes would consider modes of the ball (substance). With knowing what substance is, Descartes further distinguishes infinite and finite substance, along with perfect and imperfect substances. Asking the question of what is a substance, Descartes claims that god is a substance because god exists without requiring anything. Next considering that god exists, anything which god creates can also be a substance because, as god is a substance, his creation is also a substance, however, with a lesser degree of existence making it b oth finite and imperfect because they required god. Understanding what substance is, it is important to note, that Descartes considers god, the mind, and body as the only three substances that exist. 1 The mind and body for Descartes are two forms of substances that he distinguishes as being separate from one another in operations. Descartes theory for this comes from his isolation from everything he has known including his physical body. Keeping in mind that everything is an illusion, Descartes tells himself if he isShow MoreRelatedDualism And Belief That The Mind And Brain Essay1201 Words   |  5 PagesAccording to J.P. Moreland in his argument for dualism, he states that humans are composed of both an immaterial substance and a physical substance. Moreland notes that there are contrasting differences between the minds and the brains and that they are ultimately separate entities. By defending dualism, Moreland seeks to make nonbelievers believe in immaterial souls, while discrediting materialism. We can look at the arguments in which Moreland uses to support the argument of dualism and beliefRead MoreDescartess Argument For The Existence Of God Essay1522 Words   |  7 Page swith his argument that only God can cause the idea of God. I will then conclude with Descartes argues that some ideas are more real than others. These ideas are those that represent substances and contain more objective reality. These ideas are first modes or accidents, finite substance, and infinite substance. Descartes continues that through the natural light he cannot doubt that, â€Å"there must at least be as much reality in the efficient and total cause as in its effect.† (133) This followsRead MoreRenee Pann . Mid Term Essay. John Locke’S Limited Representationalism. March 12, 2017. A. . Do You Ever1417 Words   |  6 PagesRenee Pann Mid Term Essay John Locke’s Limited Representationalism March 12, 2017 A. Do you ever wonder what life is? How we subsist as humans? What is the macrocosm in general? It’s uncanny concept to cogitate, so many explications are out there and we still don’t have the answers we optate. John Locke, who wanted to test those questions was the first modern empiricist we studied. His philosophies were deeply influential on us. Locke argued that, â€Å"the mind represents the external world, but doesRead MoreMedicinal Effects Of Mushrooms And Their Metabolites Essay1234 Words   |  5 Pagestheir medicinal and tonic properties (Gunde-Cimerman, 1999). The longest tradition of using edible mushrooms for medicinal purposes is in China. Mushrooms represent a major and as yet largely untapped source of powerful new pharmaceutical products. The most significant medicinal effect of mushrooms and their metabolites that attracted the attention of the public in the recent years is their antitumour property. Many pharmaceutical substances with potent and unique properties were isolated from mushroomsRead MorePhilippine Clean Air Act of 19991654 Words   |  7 PagesPhilippine Clean Air Act of 1999 CHAPTER 1: GENERAL PROVISIONS Article One: Basic Air Quality Policies SECTION 1. Short Title. - This Act shall be known as the Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999. SECTION 2. Declaration of Principles. - The State shall protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature. The State shall promote and protect the global environment to attain sustainable development while recognizing the primaryRead MoreThe Mind Body Problem And Cartesian Dualism1024 Words   |  5 PagesCartesian dualism to be the most plausible solution to the mind-body problem. Cartesian dualism argues that there is a two-way interaction between mental and physical substances. Renee Descartes, the creator of the theory, believed that a man consisted of matter, the physical things that walk and talk etc., and mind, the nonphysical substance (often correlated with the soul) that thinks, doubts, remembers, etc. The first argument in Cartesian Dualism is the Argument from doubt. We are supposed to beRead MoreHow Does The Substance Will Play A Huge Role?1591 Words   |  7 PagesEver since graphene has been found, scientists began to wonder how the substance will play a huge role in our future. Predicting which sector graphene can improve is easy. With the prior knowledge from previous experiments, the characteristics found could be used to formulate a list of industrial sectors where the specific characteristics would be useful. However, the experimentation for these hypotheses require countless amount of experimentation. In most cases, graphene would be mixed with severalRead MoreEnteric Bacteriocin Case Study1508 Words   |  7 Pages4.1 SOS response. The inescapability of SOS boxes inside the enteric bacteriocin regulatory area suggests that they expect a fundamental part in charge. In all actuality, for over 50 years, the inducers used to update production of these toxic substances were mutagenic masters, for instance, mitomycin C and UV light. Regardless, it is protected to expect that in their typical living space, for example, the gastro intestinal tract of man, DNA-hurting administrators are not plenteous. Mitomycin CRead MoreDescartes : Mind Over Matter1331 Words   |  6 Pages1018 Professor Crowell Phil 21 22 April 2016 Mind over Matter In his meditations Descartes supposed there was two fundamentally different sorts of substances in the universe, physical stuff, which bodies and chairs etc. are made up of; which is extended in space, hence he called it res extensa, but there’s also mind stuff which isn’t in space at all thinking stuff or, res cogitans. Bodies are made of res extensa and minds are made of res cogitans and the two are separate. To understand why he thoughtRead MoreThe Mind / Brain Identity Theory1718 Words   |  7 Pagesinterpretation is Descartes’s Dualism of substances, which became one of the most lasting legacies in his philosophy. However, a scientifically stronger interpretation was advanced through the Mind/Brain Identity theory. Prior to discussing how Elliott Sober’s presentation of the Identity Theory is philosophically stronger than Dualism, I will begin by evaluating the philosophical perspective of Dualism; I will examine the distinction between mental and p hysical substance and assess the strengths of dualism

Translocation of over-Breeding Species Free Essays

Translocation is the method to alleviate the over-breeding problem of animal besides killing them. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) broadly defines translocation as ‘‘the deliberate and mediated movement of wild individuals from one part of their range to another† (e. g. We will write a custom essay sample on Translocation of over-Breeding Species or any similar topic only for you Order Now IUCN, 1987). Translocation includes Capture and handling, captivity or some form of prolonged restraint, transport, release into an unfamiliar location four processes. Despite its wide use and importance, translocation traditionally has a low rate of success due to the effect of chronic stress. But Tufts University has done the measure on translocation and found out the solutions (Biological Conservation Molly J. Dickens 2010). Administering anesthesia or tranquilizing during capture, reduce the risk of the animal perceive handling and transport. Normally, Health assays, veterinary visits, or other forms of observation and intervention are conducted during captivity, decrease the total number of visits, thus decreasing added exposure to handling stress. Specific aspects of transport such as vehicle design, stacking density, ventilation, and even the quality of the road and the standard of driving should be measured before translocation. Finally, the use of a ‘‘soft-release† strategy, in which animals adjust to the area in a special designed cage before being released, may decrease novelty of the release site since animals will have time to adjust to their new surroundings without additional stress of finding resources or facing predation. This research makes translocation be a feasible method nowadays. There are two types of strategy in translocation. Introduce to a place with similar biotic and abiotic factors but the population of over-breeding species should be small. For the advantage, animals easily adapt the new condition. But the animals still have a high breeding rate, the over-breeding problem will threaten the ecosystem again after a long period. Another strategy is to introduce to a place with new environment. It actually can reduce the breeding rate effectively. But there is a lot of works should be carried out both before and after. Before animals can be introduced into an environment biologists must determine the reason for the over-breeding and over-population problems and also assess the risk of translocation. After translocation, biologists should study the animals to ensure they are surviving and breeding in their new environment. Translocation is the most suitable for some species of animals. For example, Grey kangaroos are one of the over breeding animals. They are capable of breeding throughout the year, but most breeding occurs in summer. The female kangaroo is usually permanently pregnant, except on the day she gives birth. This leads a high birth rate. Apart from human, the effect of predator on kangaroo’s population is limit. And also, eastern Grey Kangaroos are the most social of the kangaroos and so it is rare to see one alone. One good reason to gather together in a group is that more individuals can be more attentive to possible threats from predators. As kangaroos dead from the effect of predator is low, but the high breeding rate continuously increase the population, finally cause over-population. But the grey kangaroos are a high adaptability species. They can still alive in the change of environment and this minimizes the effect of translocation. During a dry period, males will not produce sperm. It is suitable to relocate them to a less wet place to reduce their ability of reproduction. Kangaroos are animals that don’t burp methane. In Australia, kangaroo compete with cattle and sheep. The increase in number of kangaroos enables decrease number of sheep and cattle, and therefore reduces the release of greenhouse gases. This is the main reason why we save the kangaroos rather than eating them. How to cite Translocation of over-Breeding Species, Papers

Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Morphine

Question: Discuss about the Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Morphine. Answer: Introduction: Morphine is a highly potent, commonly used opioid analgesic commonly used to treat moderate to severe pains. The information needed about it before administering it to Matt includes: Absorption Dosage of morphine can be administered to matt in the form of oral solution, tablets, capsules, pellets, Intravascular and Intravenous injections, Subcutaneous injections, inhalation, spinal injections and epidural. At times morphine is also administered rectally to be absorbed by rectal blood vessels. In terms of absorption, Morphine is variably absorbed, usually with a 30% efficiency when administered orally. It is efficiently absorbed through gastro-intestinal mucosa. Transdermal absorption of Morphine are however not that effective. After epidural administration, Morphines systemic absorption as well as absorption into the intrathecal space of meninges occurs (Mandal, 2013). Distribution Morphine has a large volume of distribution and hence is quickly distributed throughout the body including the brain. Almost one-third of the drug binds to the plasma protein to facilitate this diffusion. It takes around 15-20 min via IV and IM injections while oral administration takes 30-90 mins to reach peak plasma levels. Morphine undergoes extensive Hepatic First-pass effect reducing its bioavailability substantially (Morphine, n.d. a). Metabolism The metabolism of morphine occurs majorly in liver in a process known as first-pass metabolism as a result of which, 40-50% morphine reaches CNS. Due to its hepatic metabolism, the dosage administered to hepatic patients should be proportionately reduced. The main metabolic pathway to breakdown morphine is glucuronidation through which a number of active and inactive metabolites such as morphine-3-glucuronide (M3G) (inactive), Morphine-6-glucuronide (M6G) (active) are formed. Small quantities of Normorphine (neurotoxic), codeine and hydromorphone may also form (Glare Walsh, 1991). Excretion Morphine and its metabolites are excreted through kidneys after metabolism. In case of renal insufficiency, the metabolites especially M6G tends to accumulate in the body though pure form is released which forms around 10% of administered dose. Pharmacodynamics After entering blood stream, morphine quickly crosses blood-brain barrier and binds predominantly to mu-opioid receptors however simultaneous interaction with Kappa- and delta-type opioid receptors too happen though not to the similar extent. This leads to analgesia, sedation and respiratory depression. Analgesia is induced by binding to the opioid receptors and inhibition of GABA inhibitory neurons which normally inhibit the descending pain inhibition pathway. Without the presence of these GABA neurons, pain modulation happens efficiently. Due to its action on CNS, morphine is administered carefully to mental patients, CNS patients and those administered with MAO inhibitors in the last fortnight (Morphine, n.d. b). References Glare, P. A., Walsh, T. D. (1991). Clinical pharmacokinetics of morphine. Therapeutic drug monitoring, 13(1), 1-23. Mandal, A. (2013). Morphine Pharmacokinetics. News Medical Lifesciences. Retrieved from https://www.news-medical.net/health/Morphine-Pharmacokinetics.aspx Morphine (n.d. a). Davids Drug Guide. Nursing Central. Retrieved from https://nursing.unboundmedicine.com/nursingcentral/view/Davis-Drug-Guide/51518/all/morphine#10 Morphine (n.d. b). The Drug Bank. Retrieved from https://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00295